Gandalf of Vingulmark: The Petty King Who Opposed Harald Fairhair

Gandalf Alfgeirsson, remembered in saga tradition as Gandalf the Old, was a petty king of Vingulmark, one of the southeastern districts of Viking Age Norway. He ruled in the mid–9th century, during the turbulent era just before Norway's unification.

Gandalf's Background and Family Origins

The sagas tell us that Gandalf was the son of King Alfgeir, a local ruler who, after the death of Gudrød the Hunter (father of Halfdan the Black), moved into Vingulmark and claimed the district. Gandalf's lineage connected him both to Vingulmark and to Álfheimr (modern-day Bohuslän in Sweden and Østfold in Norway), a traditional border kingdom straddling the Oslofjord's eastern shore.

This meant Gandalf ruled lands stretching across what is now modern-day Østfold county, and he likely exercised some authority in the borderlands toward modern-day Bohuslän. His family was powerful enough to challenge the Yngling dynasty — the rising royal house that would eventually dominate all of Norway under Harald Fairhair.

Vingulmark in the Viking Age

Vingulmark was a frontier region, its very name (mark) meaning "borderland." It covered much of what is today Østfold, Follo, and Akershus around modern-day Oslo, and extended east to the Swedish frontier. Its control was highly strategic:

The Oslofjord offered access to the sea routes of the Kattegat and Skagerrak.

The Glomma River, Norway's longest river, cut through Vingulmark, providing inland access to fertile farmland and forests.

The border with Sweden's Göta River valley made it a contested corridor.

Archaeological finds confirm that Vingulmark was a center of wealth and rulership. The Tune Ship burial at Rolvsøy (near Sarpsborg in modern-day Østfold), excavated in the 1860s, dates to the early 900s and contained the remains of a high-ranking chieftain. Similarly, the Gjellestad Ship, unearthed in Halden in 2018, is a princely burial mound with evidence of large halls and ceremonial landscapes.

Conflict with Halfdan the Black

Gandalf's first great rival was Halfdan the Black, father of Harald Fairhair. Both men sought dominance over Vingulmark, and the sagas describe repeated clashes. Neither could eliminate the other, so they agreed to divide Vingulmark: Halfdan took the portion his father had once controlled by dowry, while Gandalf held the rest.

This uneasy truce shows Gandalf's stature. He was no minor chieftain, but a king powerful enough to hold his ground against the Ynglings.

Yet after Gandalf's death, his sons Hysing, Helsing, and Hake tried to overturn the settlement. They ambushed Halfdan at night, but he escaped into the forests. At Eid by modern-day Lake Øyeren, Halfdan regrouped, fought them in open battle, killed Hysing and Helsing, and drove Hake into exile in Alfheim.

Gandalf vs. Harald Fairhair

When Halfdan drowned around 860 CE, his son Harald Fairhair was still a child. Gandalf, seeing his chance to recover lost ground, became the first petty king to openly oppose Harald.

According to Heimskringla, Gandalf organized a two-pronged invasion of Vestfold:

His son Hake Gandalfsson led 300 warriors overland along what the saga calls "the upper road through the valleys."

Gandalf himself sailed across the Oslofjord with a fleet, planning to land in Vestfold behind Harald's lines.

The strategy was clear: envelop Harald's forces from two directions. But Harald's uncle and regent, Guthorm Sigurdsson, received word of the plan and quickly raised the Vestfold levies.

The Battle of Hakadal

The armies met in Hakadal, a valley north of modern-day Oslo. Here, in the forests and narrow terrain, Hake's 300 men were overwhelmed by Harald and Guthorm's larger force. Hake himself was slain, and the valley has since borne his name — Hakadal ("Hake's valley").

With Hake dead, Guthorm and Harald turned on Gandalf's seaborne army, defeating it and forcing Gandalf to retreat back into his lands. Later battles followed, but the sagas are clear: eventually Gandalf fell in combat, and Harald seized Vingulmark up to the Glomma River.

This was one of Harald's first victories in his campaign of unification, and Gandalf became one of the earliest kings to be crushed by the Ynglings.

Archaeological Context: Gandalf's Power Base

Saga tradition places Gandalf's kingdom in Vingulmark, and archaeology backs this up:

Tune Ship Burial (modern-day Sarpsborg, Østfold): A richly furnished ship grave from c. 900 CE, indicating a powerful chieftain lineage in exactly the right place and period.

Gjellestad Ship and Hall Complex (modern-day Halden, Østfold): Excavations revealed a large Viking ship burial, longhouses, and a ritual landscape, suggesting a royal seat.

Hillforts and farms around modern-day Sarpsborg and Fredrikstad: Numerous fortified sites guard the estuary of the Glomma, consistent with a royal farm (kongsgård) at Alvim or Tune.

These finds suggest Gandalf's dynasty was one of the region's foremost powers, controlling the fertile lowlands and trade routes.

Gandalf's Fate and Legacy

According to Heimskringla, Gandalf eventually died in battle against Harald Fairhair. With his sons already slain, his dynasty was extinguished. Vingulmark was absorbed into Harald's growing realm, along with Vestfold, Raumarike, and later Hedmark.

Gandalf's legacy is thus twofold: He symbolizes the petty kings' resistance to Harald's unification, and he marks the first serious opposition crushed by Harald, paving the way for further conquests.

Conclusion

Gandalf of Vingulmark was no minor ruler. His power base in modern-day Østfold, his claim to Alfheim across the border in modern-day Bohuslän, and his clashes with Halfdan the Black and Harald Fairhair all show he was one of the central players in the Oslofjord's political landscape.

The saga accounts, supported by archaeology at Tune and Gjellestad, give us a vivid picture of a king who fought to preserve his family's power but was ultimately overcome by the rising Ynglings. His defeat at the hands of Harald Fairhair in the Battle of Hakadal marks one of the opening chapters in the story of Norway's unification.